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The Happisburgh footprints are a set of ancient human footprints discovered in 2013 on the beach at Happisburgh in Norfolk.

These footprints, more than 900,000 years old, provide direct evidence of the earliest human presence in northern Europe.

The discovery was described as "one of the most important discoveries, if not the most important discovery that has been made on Britain's shores," by Dr Nick Ashton of the British Museum.

Footprints from approximately five individuals, including both adults and children, were identified.

They ranged in size from 140 to 260mm, suggesting the individuals were between 2 ft and 5 ft.

These footprints are believed to have been made by Homo antecessor, an early human species known to have lived in the Atapuerca Mountains of Spain around 800,000 years ago.

However, no hominin fossils have been found at Happisburgh.

Analysis suggests that the group, possibly consisting of five individuals, was walking in a southerly direction along mudflats in the estuary of an ancient course of the River Thames, which flowed into the sea farther north when southeastern Britain was connected to the European continent.

Archaeologists speculate that the group might have been foraging on the mudflats for seafood, such as lugworms, shellfish, crabs, and seaweed.

It is also possible they lived on an island within the estuary, offering safety from predators, and were traveling to the shore at low tide to gather resources.

At the time the footprints were made, the estuary lay in a grassy, open valley surrounded by pine forests, with a climate similar to modern southern Scandinavia.

The landscape was home to mammoths, rhinos, hippos, giant deer, and bison, which were hunted by predators like sabre-toothed cats, lions, wolves, and hyenas.

Along with a plentiful supply of game and edible plants, the river's gravel beds were rich in flint, a valuable resource for early humans to craft tools.

The discoveries at Happisburgh mark the earliest evidence of human activity this far north, dating back nearly 1 million years.

Previously, scientists believed that early hominins required warmer climates to survive, but the inhabitants of prehistoric Happisburgh had adapted to the cold, indicating that they may have developed advanced methods of hunting, clothing, shelter, and fire much earlier than previously thought.

When the discovery was made in 2013, the footprints were found in the sediment, partially concealed by beach sand, during low tide on the foreshore at Happisburgh.

The sediment had originally been deposited in the estuary of an ancient, now-extinct river and later covered by sand, which helped preserve the surface.

This layer of sediment lies beneath a cliff on the beach, but after stormy weather, the protective sand was washed away, leaving the sediment exposed.

Due to the unstable nature of the site, the footprints were quickly washed away after their discovery, but archaeologists managed to document them through detailed photographs and 3D scans, preserving the evidence digitally.

Happisburgh has yielded numerous significant archaeological discoveries over the years.

Due to severe coastal erosion, new material is frequently exposed along the cliffs and beach.

Prehistoric finds in the area have been documented as far back as 1820, when fishermen trawling oyster beds offshore found their nets filled with teeth, bones, horns, and antlers from extinct species like elephants, rhinos, and giant deer.

In February 1825, an exceptionally high tide swept away sediment, revealing even more prehistoric remains, including an ancient landscape of fossilised tree stumps, animal bones, and fir cones.

Homo antecessor

Homo antecessor is one of the earliest known species in the human evolutionary line, believed to have lived around 1.2 million to 800,000 years ago during the Lower Paleolithic era.

The species was first discovered in the Atapuerca Mountains of northern Spain in 1994, and the finds have since provided a rare glimpse into early human development in Europe.

The most significant site, Gran Dolina, yielded numerous remains that have been attributed to Homo antecessor, offering a profound insight into their physical and behavioural characteristics.

Homo antecessor is notable for its combination of primitive and modern traits.

Physically, they had a brain size of around 1,000 cubic centimetres, smaller than that of modern humans but larger than earlier species like Homo habilis.

Their facial structure was remarkably modern, particularly in their flat face and high cheekbones, traits that are typically associated with later species like Homo sapiens.

However, their skulls also retained robust features, such as prominent brow ridges, linking them to earlier hominins like Homo erectus.

The environment in which Homo antecessor lived was challenging.

Ice Age conditions likely shaped much of their existence, with fluctuating climates and landscapes that required adaptability.

They would have inhabited dense forests, grasslands, and areas near rivers, relying on their resourcefulness to survive.

Evidence from fossiliaed remains suggests they were skilled hunters and scavengers, utilising tools to butcher large animals like deer and horses.

The tools they left behind, simple stone flakes and hand axes, resemble those of earlier hominins but exhibit slight improvements, indicating a growing sophistication in tool-making techniques.

One of the most controversial aspects of Homo antecessor's life is the evidence of cannibalism.

Some of the bones found at Gran Dolina show cut marks, consistent with butchery, and are thought to be the remains of other Homo antecessor individuals.

This has led researchers to theorise that cannibalism was not just for survival during times of scarcity but perhaps also had social or ritualistic significance.

The reasons for this behaviour remain speculative, but it highlights the complex social dynamics that may have been present within their communities.

The discovery of Homo antecessor has provoked significant debate among paleoanthropologists, particularly regarding its place in the human evolutionary tree.

Some researchers argue that Homo antecessor could be a direct ancestor of both Neanderthals and modern humans, while others see it as a distinct offshoot that eventually became extinct.

The debate revolves around the question of whether Homo antecessor represents a transitional species, bridging the gap between earlier African hominins and later European populations, or if it was an evolutionary dead end.

Genetic studies have yet to yield conclusive answers, partly because extracting DNA from remains as old as Homo antecessor has proven incredibly difficult.

Despite the uncertainty surrounding its lineage, Homo antecessor remains a key figure in the understanding of human evolution, particularly in Europe.

Their presence in Spain marks some of the earliest evidence of hominins in Western Europe, suggesting that they were part of a wave of early human migration out of Africa.

This movement into Europe would have required Homo antecessor to adapt to new and challenging environments, reflecting the species’ ability to survive in diverse and often harsh conditions.

In summary, Homo antecessor stands as a testament to the early stages of human evolution in Europe, embodying both the primitive traits of earlier hominins and the emerging modernity that would eventually lead to Homo sapiens.

Their fossilised remains, tools, and the evidence of complex social behaviours, such as hunting and possible cannibalism, offer a window into a species that, while not fully understood, plays a crucial role in the story of humanity’s ancient past.

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